Montenegro Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MONTENEGRO (Montenegrin: Crna Gora) in Southeastern Europe lists 1 extinct species (Chondrostoma scodrense fish), 15 critically endangered species, and 30 endangered species. Montenegro's critically endangered species include the Adriatic Sturgeon, Balearic Shearwater, Blue Skate, European Eel, European Mink, Monkfish, Northern Bald Ibis, Slender-billed Curlew bird, and Vinodolia matjasici freshwater snail. The aforementioned snail species is only found in a spring near the village of Lipovik and Lake Skadar (Scutari). Albanian Water Frog, Adriatic Salmon, Blackchin Guitarfish, Bushy Coral, Giant Devil Ray, Huchen fish, Rough Ray, Sandy Skate, White-footed Crayfish, and other species are endangered in Montenegro. Access my Montenegro post for more information about this republic!

Mongolia Endangered Species & Species Named After Mongolia

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MONGOLIA in Central Asia lists 5 critically endangered species and 14 endangered species. There are no extinct species in Mongolia featured on the Red List. Mongolia's five critically endangered species are the Baer's Pochard, Saiga antelope, Snow Crane, Sociable Plover, and Two-humped Camel. These species are endangered in Mongolia: Asiatic Wild Dog, Eastern Curlew bird, Egyptian Eagle, Hoffmann's Pika mammal (one of the cutest animals ever, in my opinion!), Japanese White Stork, Manchurian Crane, Mongolian Wild Horse, Saker Falcon, Siberian Sturgeon, Snow Leopard (Ounce), Steppe Eagle, Tarbagan Marmot rodent, White-headed Duck, and Yellow-breasted Bunting. Discover more about this country with my comprehensive Mongolia post!

In addition to the Mongolian Wild Horse, species named after Mongolia include three species of Jerboas (Mongolian Five-toed Jerboa, Mongolian Jerboa, and Mongolian Three-toed Jerboa) and the Mongolian Finch (Mongolian Trumpeter Finch), Mongolian Gerbil (Mon. Jird), Mongolian Hamster, Mongolian Lark, Mongolian Mountain Vole and Mongolian Vole, Mongolian Pika, Mongolian Plover, Mongolian Redfin fish, and Mongolian Toad.

Monaco Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MONACO in Western Europe lists two critically endangered species and six endangered species. There are no extinct species in Monaco featured on the Red List. Balearic Shearwater birds and European Eels are critically endangered. Monaco's endangered species are all aquatic — they are the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, Blackchin Guitarfish, Bushy Coral, Common Rorqual baleen whales, Dusky Grouper, and Violinfish. Access my Monaco post for more information about this tiny, wealthy principality!

Moldova Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MOLDOVA in Southeastern Europe lists one extinct species*, six critically endangered species, and only three endangered species. Moldova's six critically endangered species are the European Eel, European Mink, Great Sturgeon, Russian Sturgeon, Saiga antelope, and Star Sturgeon. Moldova's three endangered species are all large raptor birds — the Egyptian Eagle, Saker Falcon, and Steppe Eagle. All of these species inhabit a much larger geographic area than just Moldova. There are likely some localized species that are endangered in Moldova and that do not appear on the IUCN Red List.

Extinct since the late 19th century, the Ukrainian Migratory Lamprey (Eudontomyzon sp. nov. ‘migratory’) is Moldova's sole extinct species featured on the IUCN Red List.

Sacred Sites of the Mijikenda People

Living mostly in southeastern KENYA near the Indian Ocean, Mijikenda tribes constructed and formed fortified villages beginning in the 16th century. These Kayas in the forested lands of coastal Kenya were and are still regarded as sacred ancestral homes. In 2008, UNESCO established the Sacred Mijikenda Kaya Forests (« UNESCO World Heritage webpage ») as a World Heritage Site. Kayas have been abandoned by the 1940s when the Mijikenda people resettled, but their former homes are now preserved by tribal elders for the sacred significance of these lands and structures. The eleven Kaya sites protected by UNESCO — some of which are named Duruma, Giriama, Jibana, Kambe, Kauma, Kinondo, and Ribe — occupy 1,538 hectares (about 3,800 acres) of land and are spread out about 200 kilometers near the southeast Kenyan coast.

Black Madonna of Czestochowa: One of the World’s Artistic Gems

GeoFact of the Day Exclusive Document

Citing this Work (MLA Formatting)
"Black Madonna of Czestochowa: One of the World’s Artistic Gems." GeoFact of the Day Blog. Wonderful World Blog Publishing, 2 July 2016. Web. http://geofactoftheday.blogspot.com/2016/07/black-madonna.html

            Housed in the stately Jasna Gora (“Bright Mountain”) Monastery of Czestochowa (southern Poland), a bold gold frame above the altar borders a dark, dim, fifteenth-century painting: the Black Madonna (Our Lady) of Czestochowa (1434). It is an oil painting on wood and features a stunning accessory: an interchangeable “robe” frame covering encrusted with jewels. Attracting hundreds of thousands of Christian pilgrims annually for over six centuries (Karafilly 1998, H1), Poland’s famous Black Madonna has been replicated several times. One copy is found at the National Shrine of Our Lady of Czestochowa in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, another is found in Switzerland’s Hospice of the Great St. Bernard Pass (Duricy 2013), and others are found in various churches of England. Art historians and analysts have debated the significance and purpose of Black Madonna portraits. While Black Madonna portraits at Jasna Gora and other places worldwide might embody the resilient and generous spirit of Virgin Mary, these images have a wide variety of other meanings and symbolism as well.

Subject Matter and History
            The Black Madonna of Czestochowa features Virgin Mary (Madonna) and her miraculous son, Jesus Christ. Her right hand gestures towards Jesus, and Jesus’ left index finger points upward towards his mother. Like with many examples of Roman Catholic artwork, the subjects’ heads are surrounded by golden haloes – to presumably denote their important status within Christianity. Meanwhile, the bejeweled frame covering includes crowns atop the heads of Madonna and Jesus. Jesus is holding an ornately designed, thick book – this may or may not be the Bible. Just like the Bible, the history of this artwork is not exactly well-documented or properly dated in time. This artwork was legendarily created or inspired by St. Luke the Evangelist (DICI 2012; Duricy 2013; Karafilly H1), while it may really be painted in the fifteenth century. St. Helena – Constantine’s Queen Mother – allegedly found the portrait when she visited the Holy Land (fourth century), and then she brought it to the city of Constantinople. It could have eventually arrived in Poland, when St. Ladislaus obtained this masterpiece in the 1400s (Duricy 2013). Four famous examples of these bejeweled picture frame (“robe”) coverings existed over the years, being named after the dominant material adorning the surface: diamonds, rubies, pearls, and chain. The current robe overwhelmingly sparkles with diamonds (Rozanow 2010). There are at least seven total robes, and only two are on public display (Karafilly H2).

            After the 1400s, additional restorations took place. Art historian Ernst Scheyer conjectures that this painting was at least restored “in the nineteenth century and painted somewhat darker than previously.” The possible reasons why there is a “Black” Madonna – rather than white, as seen in many Western depictions of Madonna – are discussed in detail later below. Not everyone is pleased to venerate this Madonna image. In December 2012, she was vandalized with black paint (DICI 2012). This relatively recent case of vandalism is certainly not the first one; in 1430, Bohemian bandits stomped on and slashed the Madonna portrait; they also stole pilgrim’s votive gifts (Karafilly H1; Barham 2003, 330). A legend purports that these mischievous vandals ran away in horror when blood oozed out of the painting! Regardless of various cases of vandalism on her, the Black Madonna is said to have given miracles to the Polish people, who overcame invasive, dangerous groups such as the Swedes, Bolsheviks, and Nazis (Karafilly H1-2). Therefore, this gives hope to devout pilgrims that Madonna’s resiliency can help them overcome difficult times.

Style, Meanings, Symbolism, and Cultural Context
            Anyone including art connoisseurs and first-time Jasna Gora visitors may instantly notice Madonna and Jesus wearing solemn and/or stoic facial expressions. This could signify that Christian worshippers should humbly and seriously respect them – as Jesus’ salvation of humans from sin is an important and serious task. Madonna also has two noticeable long scars and one shorter scar on her face. These scars – left alone by restorers to reveal the Bohemian vandals’ inexcusable action (Karafilly H1) – can represent the painful sorrows of her son’s crucifixion, and/or the adversity she might have faced in raising a son who constantly challenged authorities in power. She seems to hold Jesus on her arm and on the left part of her chest. However, the not-quite-perfect shadowing of Jesus and the ripples in Madonna’s clothing results in him levitating against her body – rather than being visibly anchored to her.
Compared to some subdued Christian paintings, colors are relatively vibrant. Madonna’s and Jesus’ bright, light-gold haloes are interconnected to each other – essentially signifying the unconditional love and interconnectedness of their mother-son relationship. I and some other art analysts would argue that Madonna’s purple robe symbolizes royalty and dignity, while her hood could signify that she is protective, humble, and respectable. Jesus’ red robe could represent the blood he unfortunately shed when being crucified and dying for humans’ sins. The artwork’s lighting is peculiar in that Madonna has a bright spot on her nose while Jesus does not. Also, there may be two relatively dim light sources coming from opposite directions. From our view, the left side of Madonna’s face is lit, while the opposite is true in regards to Jesus.

            Visual-aid artwork in chapels, churches, synagogues, etc. helped illiterate worshippers understand main messages and tenets of the religion worshipped within these places. The diamond “robe” frame cover visually implies to Christians – even illiterate ones – that the subjects surrounded by jewels in this painting are meant to be revered for their immense importance in Christianity. A major component of Ancient to Medieval Art History is determining the styles and mannerisms of ancient societies’ artwork. According to Leonard Moss and other art historians and iconographers, the Madonna figure is “distinctly thirteenth-fourteenth century Byzantine in form” (Duricy 2013). Black Madonna of Czestochowa is a variety of Hodegetria iconography, in which Madonna is affirming – with her right hand – that her young boy is someone to respect and repent sins to. In an image caption contest, Madonna could be saying, “Look, everyone, my son right here is very important to Christianity.” Jesus might respond, “Yeah, but mom, you did the important task of giving birth to me and encouraging me to spread my message of salvation and love around the world!”

Theories of Why Madonna is Black
            The skin of Madonna and Jesus in this painting is darker in color than their skin in many Western Christian artworks. Plenty of art historians, scholars, and iconographers have contributed their theories in regards to this. Joan Carroll Cruz suggests a possible link to the Song of Songs: “I am black but beautiful” (Duricy 2013). However, she also notes that accumulated residue from candles may have darkened the figures’ skin color. Similarly, Charles Broschart suggests that flames and smoke from a shrine fire darkened this image. If the Black Madonna was indeed Byzantine in style, maybe their skin color is similar to that of Byzantine people’s skin color (ibid.). Barham, Stephen Benko, and Gustafson all propose that black Madonnas resemble Earth and fertility goddesses, such as Artemis, Ceres (Demeter), Hecate, Kali, Isis, Medusa, and Rhea (Barham 326, 328; Duricy 2013; Gustafson 2009, 15). She might also represent the darkness of rich, fertile soil or serve to be “an icon of the mystery of life and death that defies definition and speaks to the deepest layers of the human soul” (Gustafson 18).

Conclusion
            Throughout Europe, there is hardly a more populated pilgrimage site boasting a “mass of avid, hopeful humanity” (Karafilly H2) than the Jasna Gora monastery, featuring an artistic gem at the altar. Everyone is pointing fingers at each other: Jesus points up to his mother, Madonna hand gestures toward her son, and pilgrims arriving at Jasna Gora are fingering towards Jesus and the Virgin Mary in starstruck awe. With a rather gloomy yet brave facial expression, the Black Madonna hints at and displays her generosity, resiliency, and humility. While these characteristics are some that Christians easily attach to Virgin Mary, she represents a variety of other meanings, too – many of which orbit outside the Christian and religious realm.

            Supplementing the debate of what Christian figures such as Jesus Christ and the Virgin Mary looked like as humans thousands of years ago, there is plenty of debate as to why the Virgin Mary featured in the Czestochowa image has a relatively dark skin tone. Some theories are grounded in practicality: Madonna may resemble the physical appearance of Byzantine people (who lived in what is now the Middle East, Turkey, etc.), or maybe candle soot somehow contributed to the painting’s overall darkness. Other theories address spirituality: the Black Madonna is an Earth goddess, and/or she embodies the vitality that fertile soil gives to plants and consequently other life forms on Earth. Her importance is exemplified by the scintillatingly glamorous robe covering that she and a young Jesus may occasionally wear at Josna Gory monastery. Regardless of what the Black Madonna truly represents, Christian pilgrims come far and wide to pay their respects to the Virgin Mary in southern Poland.

Works Cited
Barham, Penny. “Black Madonnas.” Feminist Theology: The Journal of the Britain & Ireland School of Feminist Theology 11.3 (2003): 325. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Duricy, Michael P. “Black Madonnas — Our Lady of Czestochowa.” Black Madonnas. International Marian Research Institute, University of Dayton, 5 Feb. 2013. http://campus.udayton.edu/mary/meditations/olczest.html.

Gustafson, Fred. The Black Madonna of Einsiedeln. Einsiedeln: Daimon Verlag, 2009. Print.

Karafilly, Irena F. “Poland's National Icon: In times of trouble, Poles have often turned for help to the Black Madonna of Czestochowa - and today their faith and fervor are undiminished.” The Montreal Gazette: pgs. H 1-4. 1998.

“Poland: The Black Madonna of Czestochowa Vandalized.” Documentation Information Catholiques Internationales, 21 Dec. 2012. Web. http://www.dici.org/en/news/poland-the-black-madonna-of-czestochowa-vandalized/.

Rozanow, Zofia. "New Robes of Our Lady of Czestochowa." Sunday Catholic Weekly. Niedziela, 2010. Web. http://sunday.niedziela.pl/artykul.php?dz=polska&id_art=00164.

Colombia Map and Post Updates

Above is my new map of COLOMBIA, which is now featured on a comprehensively updated Colombia post (« Colombia Post Link »). As always, thank you so much for visiting the GeoFact of the Day Blog today!

Ruins of Loropeni

Scattered across southwestern BURKINA FASO are about a dozen historic fortified settlements and at least 100 stone enclosures, signifying where the Koulango people established a burgeoning gold mining and trading civilization. While the trans-Saharan gold trade particularly helped Koulango society flourish between the 14th and 17th centuries, stone ruins near the city of Loropéni possibly date back about 1,000 years ago to the 11th century. These ruins are protected the only UNESCO World Heritage Site in the year 2016. Update: a couple newly established sites in Burkina Faso were inscribed to the World Heritage List in 2017 and 2019. The height of Loropéni's laterite stone walls can reach up to six meters or almost 20 feet. The UNESCO map below shows the ruins' location — northwest of Loropéni and north of Hobikoko village in an isolated, forested area. More photos and information can be found on UNESCO's webpage, conveniently linked above.

Micronesia Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for the Federated States of MICRONESIA (« country blog post ») in the Western Pacific Ocean lists 2 extinct species, 6 critically endangered species, and 21 endangered species. Living on Kosrae island (« Kosrae blog post ») up until mid to late 1800s, Kosrae Crake birds and Kosrae Starling birds became extinct partially due to introduced rats (hitchhiking on ships and boats) competing for natural resources. Now switching to the discussion about Micronesia's endangered species. The large oceanic country's critically endangered species are the Hawksbill Turtle, Nightingale Reed Warbler, three species of land snails (Partula emersoni, Partula guamensis, and Partula martensiana), and Pohnpei Starling — only located on Pohnpei island (« Pohnpei blog post »). Endangered species include the Boettger's Emo Skink, Chuuk Emperor bird (endemic to Chuuk island), Dumeril's Tropical Gecko, Eastern Curlew bird, Micronesian Cycad plant, Polynesian Sheath-tailed Bat, Sandfish, Ulithi Fruit Bat, and Undulate Wrasse fish.

Species named after Micronesia include the Micronesian Imperial Pigeon, Micronesian Kingfisher bird, Micronesian Myzomela, Micronesian Scrubfowl, Micronesian Starling, and Micronesian Wrasse fish.

Species Named After Mexico

Species named after Mexico include the Central Mexican Broad-clawed Shrew, Dwarf Mexican Treefrog, Grizzled Mexican Small-eared Shrew, Leather Leaf Mexican Oak tree, Little Mexican Toad, Mexican Agouti rodent, Mexican Arroyo Toad, Mexican Big-eared Bat, Mexican Black-headed Snake, Mexican Blind Snake, Mexican Blindcat catfish, Mexican Blenny fish, Mexican Cacique bird, Mexican Caecilian amphibians, Mexican Chickadee, Mexican Cottontail rabbit (so cute!), Mexican Darter fish, Mexican Deer Mouse, Mexican Dog-faced Bat, Mexican Drooping Juniper tree, Mexican Flounder, Mexican Fox Squirrel, Mexican Free-tailed Bat, Mexican Garter Snake, Mexican Golden Trout, Mexican Hermit Crab, Mexican Jay bird, Mexican Lamprey, Mexican Leaf Frog, Mexican Long-nosed Bat, Mexican Mushroomtongue Salamander, Mexican Nut Pine tree, Mexican Parrot Snake, Mexican Prairie Marmot rodent, Mexican Red-knee Tarantula, Mexican Searobin (these aquatic creatures seem to have "wings" like robins do), Mexican Water Mouse, and Mexican Yew shrub.

Mexico Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MEXICO in North America lists 246 critically endangered species and 405 endangered species. Mexico's critically endangered species include the Adler's Mottled Treefrog, Admirable False Brook Salamander, Angel Island Mouse, Axolotl (Mexican Salamander), California Condor, Central American River Turtle, Imperial Salamander, Imperial Woodpecker, Margarita Island Kangaroo Rat, Nelson's Small-eared Shrew, Puebla Deer Mouse, Recurved Crusted Coralroot orchid plant, San Jose Brush Rabbit, and Short-crested Coquette bird, and Zapotec Salamander. Endangered species include the Acultzingo Pygmy Salamander, Artichoke Cactus, Boulder Star Coral, Cardboard Palm cycad plant, Dennis' Chirping Frog, Dickinson's Lady's Slipper flower, Horned Guan bird, Oaxaca Hummingbird, Paulson's Knobtail dragonfly, and Sea Otter, Thick-billed Parrot, and Zempoaltepec rodent.

Mexico Extinct Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MEXICO in North America lists 25 extinct species and 6 extinct-in-the-wild species. Some extinct species include the Ameca Shiner fish, Coronados Island Woodrat, Guadalupe (Mourning) Caracara bird, Mexican Dace fish, Pemberton's Deer Mouse, San Martin Island Woodrat, Slender-billed Grackle bird, Tres Marías Island Rice Rat, Villa Lopez Pupfish, and West Indian Monk Seal. Butterfly Splitfin fish, Catarina Pupfish, Golden Skaffia fish, La Palma Pupfish, Potosí Pupfish, and Socorro Dove are Mexico's extinct-in-the-wild species.

Mauritius Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MAURITIUS in Southeast Africa and the Indian Ocean lists 81 critically endangered species and 54 endangered species. These are large numbers for a rather small country, although Mauritius is known to be a biodiverse hotspot with plenty of low-population species. Some critically endangered species include the Bojer's Skink, Bottle Palm, Madagascar Fish Eagle, Mauritius Olive White-eye bird, Réunion Petrel, Rodrigues Flying Fox, and Zanthoxylum heterophyllum tree. Endangered species include the Abbott's Booby bird, Barau's Petrel, Common Rorqual, Dark-mantled Sotty Albatross, Günther's Gecko, Mascarene (Echo) Parakeet (population is steadily increasing), and Wattle-necked Softshell Turtle. Living species named after Mauritius include the Blue Mauritius Angelfish, Mauritius Bulbul bird, Mauritius Cuckoo Shrike, Mauritius Fody, Mauritius Kestrel, and Mauritius Swiflet.

Mauritius Extinct Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MAURITIUS in Southeast Africa and the Indian Ocean lists 46 extinct species — the largest number I have so far encountered in compiling these extinct and endangered species posts. Despite Mauritius' relatively tiny land area, populations of many species living (or that once lived) in this biodiverse island country have been rigorously studied — hence why biologists have concluded that Mauritius has many extinct species that once lived on its land. As listed below, most extinct species are birds.

Last living on Earth in the 1600s, the flightless Dodo bird is arguably one of the most well-known extinct species in the world. These birds could not adequately adapt to settlers and their land misuse, including the introduction of "predatory" pigs. Other extinct species include the following: Dark Flying Fox, Mauritian Duck, Mauritian Shelduck, Mauritius Blue Pigeon, Mauritius Grey Parrot, Mauritius Night Heron, Mauritius Owl, Mauritius Parrot, Mauritius Turtle Dove, Mauritius Woodpigeon, Red Rail, Rodrigues Blue Pigeon, Rodrigues Parakeet, Rodrigues Solitaire (related to Dodo birds), and Round Island Burrowing Boa snake.

Hawfinches

One of the largest finch species, the Hawfinch species of bird lives in a large geographic area spanning Asia, Europe, and portion of North Africa. In Europe alone, an estimated population of 7 million hawfinches is a rather conservative number. Therefore, these birds need not worry about their extinction in the near future! Hawfinches mostly eat seeds, insects, and plant buds and leaves. They prefer living in deciduous forests with plenty of fruit-bearing trees but are no strangers to parks, gardens, and other "human habitats." As pictured below (image from the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds), male hawfinches look somewhat similar in appearance — except their breeding plumage is more vibrant.

As shown in the map below, breeding areas include northern England and Scotland, northern Japan (especially Hokkaido island), northern Kazakhstan and northern Mongolia, southern Russia (including the island of Sakhalin and Kamchatka Peninsula). Non-breeding areas in which hawfinches live include eastern, southern, and western Europe, Eurasia (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey), Israel and northern Jordan, North Africa (northern areas of Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia), parts of China and most of Japan, and North Korea and South Korea.

Mauritania Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MAURITANIA in West Africa lists 1 regionally extinct species (Scimitar-horned Oryx*), 12 critically endangered species, and 18 endangered species. Some of Mauritania's critically endangered species include the Addra Gazelle, Angel Shark, Goliath Grouper, Monkfish, Northern Bald Ibis, Rueppell's Griffon bird, and White-backed Vulture. Endangered species include the Cape Hunting Dog, Dusky Grouper, Ladyfish, Pollack Whale, Saker Falcon, Senegalese Hake fish, Spikenose (African) Wedgefish, and Violinfish.

Species named after Mauritania include the Mauritanian Shortface Eel and Mauritanian Shrew. Both are categorized as Least Concern (LC) by the IUCN. *You might've remembered that the Scimitar-horned Oryx was mentioned in the GeoFact of the Day Blog's Mali endangered species post. Therefore, there are no oryx species living in these two Sahara-straddling countries, although the species as a whole is labeled Extinct in the Wild — meaning there are oryxes living in breeding programs and captive preserves, so that their population can optimistically increase.

Marshall Islands Endangered Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ for MARSHALL ISLANDS in Oceania lists eight endangered species since the beginning of IUCN recordkeeping. Like Kiribati and Lesotho, there are no critically endangered species living among the Marshall Islands. The vast aquatic country's endangered species are as follows: two Black Teatfish species (Holothuria nobilis and Holothuria whitmaei), Boettger's Emo Skink, Dumeril's Tropical Gecko, Green Turtle, Prickly Redfish sea cucumber, Pygmy Blue Whale, and Undulate Wrasse fish.

Technical Difficulties!

Hello and thanks for visiting the GeoFact of the Day Blog today! You might notice that there are some blank images — looks like there are some technical difficulties at the moment. This blog's mobile version seems to look normal, but not my desktop computer version. Hopefully my images will be up and running soon!

Zika Virus Precautions and Locations

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, the Zika virus is spread mostly through an infection from an Aedes-species mosquito. However, it can be unfortunately transmitted through intercourse (particularly from an infected man) — but also from a pregnant woman to her fetus(es), as you probably know from extensive media coverage. Thankfully, Zika is not typically lethal for healthy adults, although some elderly people with weak immune systems could die from the virus and other simultaneous health complications they have.

Pregnant women should not visit "Zika countries and territories" (where virus transmission is ongoing) since Zika-infected babies are often born with microcephaly (causes smaller heads) and other severe issues. These places include Puerto Rico and other Caribbean Sea territories and countries (Aruba, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, etc.), Cape Verde in Africa, Central America (Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Panama), South America (all countries except Chile and Uruguay), and Pacific Oceania (American Samoa, Fiji, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Tonga). The following infographic courtesy of Purdue University shows tips to protect yourself if you wanted to travel to a Zika-impacted place. Click on this image to enlarge in a pop-up window.

Haiti Department Regions

Click on the map image above to enlarge it in a pop-up window.

Sharing the western half of Hispaniola island with Dominican Republic to the east, the HAITI is administratively divided into 10 Departments (French: Départements) as well as over 40 Arrondissements. In alphabetical order, Haiti's provinces are L'Artibonite, Centre, Grand'Anse, Nippes, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest (location of Port-au-Prince, Haiti's capital), Sud, and Sud-Est. Established in 2003 from Grand'Anse department, Nippes is technically translated from French into English as clothing — or duds! On the GeoFact of the Day Blog map above, the country's major islands are labeled near green text. Haiti has an affinity for its wildlife and livestock, enough to name a couple islands after beloved creatures. Haiti's southernmost island is essentially named Cow (Vache), while the northernmost one is named Turtle (Tortue, or Tortuga).

Dominican Republic Provinces

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Sharing the eastern half of Hispaniola island with Haiti to the west, the DOMINICAN REPUBLIC is administratively divided into 31 Provinces (Spanish: Províncias) and a National District (Distrito Nacional*). In alphabetical order, the Dominican Republic's provinces are Azua, Bahoruco (also known as Baoruco), Barahona, Dajabón, Duarte, El Seybo (also known as El Seibo), Elías Piña (also known as La Estrelleta), Espaillat, Hato Mayor, Hermanas Mirabal (formerly known as Salcedo), Independencia, La Altagracia, La Romana, La Vega, María Trinidad Sánchez, Monseñor Nouel, Monte Cristi, Monte Plata, Pedernales, Peravia, Puerto Plata, Samaná, San Cristóbal, San José de Ocoa, San Juan, San Pedro de Macorís, Sánchez Ramírez, Santiago, Santiago Rodríguez, Santo Domingo, and Valverde. Since November 2007, the province of Salcedo (named after Francisco Antonio Salcedo, an 1800s war hero) became renamed to Hermanas Mirabal — in honor of four sisters (Dedé, María Teresa, Minerva, and Patria) who led an inspirational opposition movement against dictator Rafael Trujillo. The capital and most-populated city of Hermanas Mirabal Province is still named Salcedo.

* This is where Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic's capital, is located.

More Food Desert Studies: Let’s Make More Maps

GeoFact of the Day Blog Exclusive Document

Citing this Work (MLA Formatting)
"Environmental Injustice Exacerbated by Zoning." GeoFact of the Day Blog. Wonderful World Blog Publishing, 2 July 2016. Web. http://geofactoftheday.blogspot.com/2016/07/more-food-desert-studies-lets-make-more.html.

          Studies about the lack of food access in both urban and rural areas have generally increased each year, with citations including but certainly not limited to Gallagher (2006), McEntee and Agyeman (2010), Mundorf et al. (2015), Smith and Morton (2009), Thomson (2011), and Walker et al. (2010). All of my citations in this paper give credit to scholarly articles written within this millennium. I cited relatively recent sources of information because there is in-depth analysis and data collection regarding food access (i.e. Gordon et al. 2011 analyzing relationship between demographic variables and food store indices), and there are some specific case studies about particular cities or rural areas (i.e. Smith and Morton 2009 focusing on Iowa and Minnesota). Also, these recent studies utilize a variety of sources and research measures to evaluate food access, including the following examples: census data, focus groups, food use inventory, GIS and cartography, interviews, and surveys (Walker et al. 878). The study of food deserts in both urban neighborhoods and rural settings is proliferating since the beginning of this millennium, and the mapping of food access should play an important role in future case studies for valuable visual insights.

About Food Deserts
          Announced by President Obama in 2010, the Healthy Food Financing Initiative coordinates with the U.S. Department of Agriculture to research food access and help local markets sell healthy food in so-called food desert areas. The HFFI defines that a food desert is a low-income census tract area (20% or greater poverty) in which at least one-third of local residents have low and especially difficult access to markets, supermarkets, or grocery stores. Low access is defined as urban residents living more than a mile from a supermarket or grocery store, as well as rural residents living more than 10 miles from a supermarket or grocery store (Economic Research Service, USDA). Before the official food desert definition came into existence, Mari Gallagher brought the term into mainstream usage after examining the effects of someone’s Chicago neighborhood location on his or her food access (Gallagher 2006, 6). Gallagher’s study became a standard-bearer for future food access research because it contains maps, tables, and graphs – all visual aids which help convert sometimes confusing data into a form that readers can likely understand.

Food Deserts Search Results
          To explore how much research about food deserts is available, I used a comprehensive, centralized database feature that combines all sorts of research documents from multiple databases. “Full text online,” “scholarly & peer-reviewed,” and “peer-reviewed” filters were turned on so I can find accessible and quality-assured resources. A total of 1,462 results contain the exact term food desert – surrounded by quotation marks to keep thisdu phrase exact and intact within search results. The graph below shows how many search results per year were generated. There is a clear increase in search results up until the year 2014, although there is a drop in 2015 and so far in 2016. This graph visually reveals that food desert research grew in the last decade – and at least may be at a sustained level for future study of this subject.

          Since about 75% of census tracts in the United States are urban food deserts (Thomson 8), it would be logical to believe that more research has been done regarding urban food deserts compared to rural ones. This assertion is backed up by my search results – although not to the extent I originally hypothesized. I searched urban food deserts as well as “urban food deserts” (quotation marks to keep this phrase intact) – bringing up 15,460 search results and 82 results, respectively. Meanwhile, a rural food deserts search and a “rural food deserts” search resulted in 12,437 and 55 possible sources to research within. Before this search, I initially hypothesized that there would be about three times as many urban food desert articles as rural food desert ones, matching up with the ratio of urban to rural food deserts. Therefore, at least these search results imply that there is already more research about rural food deserts than I initially thought.

Analyzing Food Access in a Variety of Ways
          Despite the relatively pleasing amount of search results pertaining to rural food access, some scholars nevertheless note the urgent importance of doing more to study rural areas lacking satisfactory food access. For example, Lucan et al. criticizes Hartley et al. for saying that the study of food access and food deserts in rural is “less meaningful.” Lucan et al. comments that some rural residents face burdensome issues such as an inconsistent food supply, lack of transportation, and inconvenient location from stores selling a variety of produce (Lucan et al. 2012, 484-5). Some researchers comment that previous quantitative and data-based studies focused mostly on urban food deserts (McEntee and Argyeman 2010, 166). Smith and Morton implies more research into rural food deserts should be completed, so that better community planning and more incentives for rural grocery and market owners can lead to improved food access (Smith and Morton 185).

          Focusing solely on urban food deserts in New York City’s Brooklyn and Harlem boroughs, Gordon et al. (2010) is noted for an empirical and quantitative approach to explain how food deserts have formed in the Big Apple. For example, these researchers performed a block-by-block assessment of “every establishment selling food and beverages” (Gordon et al. 697) in Brooklyn and Harlem, and studying the Upper East Side (affluent and directly adjacent to Harlem) for comparison. The authors “calculated descriptive statistics for demographic and food access variables and examined the relationship between the block group demographic variables, food desert index components, and the total ‘‘food desert index’’ score. They found that neighborhoods with predominantly African-American residents (especially in Harlem) had the least “most healthy” food stores and the fewest number of supermarkets in New York City. The opposite is true for predominantly Caucasian and Latino block groups (Gordon et al. 699).

          Providing a specific case study for another urban area, Mundorf et al. (2015) focused on studying the changes of food access disparities in New Orleans, before and after Hurricane Katrina. Like Gordon et al., these researchers quantitatively analyzed food deserts and food access – performing “HLM Poisson regression analyses,” to be exact (Mundorf et al. 605). They found that the food access situation for African Americans – relative to other New Orleans residents – positively improved by the year 2014. To be precise, Mundorf et al. note that there is no statistically significant difference in food access (ibid. 605). However, food access issues still remain issues in New Orleans and in cities across the country, as explained by various factors. For example, urban supermarket prices are generally higher than suburban ones, according to some studies (Walker et al. 881). Even if a neighborhood has an adequate number of markets and supermarkets, the temptation of fast food from an abundance of fast-food establishments may prevent families from eating fresh fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, etc. at the dinner table (Parsons 2012, 41). Some surveys and personal interviews show that many residents in food deserts are knowledgeable about healthy foods’ benefits and how to cook – mostly unhealthy food, though. However, cooking classes could help provide residents information on how to prepare healthy foods in convenient and tasty ways (Parsons 39; Whittmeyer 2014). Some researchers may overlook the fact that low-income residents may not visit stores that do not accept EBT cards, which could mean they would have to travel farther to visit a store that does accept those (Parsons 42). In summary, a variety of factors explain why some low-income and racial-ethnic minority residents are living in food deserts.

Mapping Food Access and “Food Deserts”
          While the task of exploring the factors that help create food deserts was initially studied qualitatively, the growing nature of this study means that more research papers are studying this subject quantitatively (McEntee and Agyeman 165). Containing data related to demographics, availability of markets, and food access, relevant GIS data sets are becoming increasingly available for food desert researchers (ibid. 165). These conditions mean that there is opportunity for researchers to gather more empirical data – a task Gordon et al. completed, as mentioned previously. In addition, more maps can be created to show the environment injustices of food deserts – especially highlighting the food deserts that have not been researched before.

          So far, researchers have conducted mapping activities for mostly urban but some rural case study areas, including Chicago; Lansing, Michigan; and the state of Vermont, which of course includes rural areas. One mapmaking-related study is particularly revolutionary for the study of food deserts: “Gallagher’s 2006 map of Chicago food deserts is credited with spurring Congress two years later to ask the U.S. Department of Agriculture for a national study of public access to affordable, nutritious food” (Thomson 9). As a result of her study, the USDA did file a report asserting that people located far away from fresh food stores and lacking transportation lived in “food deserts.” Likewise, professors at Michigan State University mapped pedestrian food access in Michigan’s state capital. They note that, over the past several decades, multiple supermarkets moved from inner-city to suburban areas and therefore decreased the access of food for urban residents (Goldsberry and Howard 2011). For the whole state of Vermont, McEntee and Agyeman mapped the “mean distance to food retailers within census tract[s].” The authors found that Vermont’s food deserts are scattered throughout the state and mostly in rural areas (McEntee and Agyeman 170-2). The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Economic Research Service interactive map provides a nationwide analysis of food deserts. The agency’s publicly-accessible map might serve as the basis for food desert research paper’s geographic analysis. With its various layers depicting distance from food stores, the USDA’s map shows that plenty of food deserts exist in states with geographically large rural areas, such as Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas, Kentucky, and Idaho.

          While it can be argued that more mapping of food access can be done to visually highlight the issues affecting food desert areas, the aforementioned mapping research may lead to more researchers taking a cartographic approach in analyzing food desert issues. Providing optimism that there is plenty of mapmaking-related research, Walker et al. notes that cited studies in the authors’ paper (nine of them) mostly used GIS technology – compared to other methods of analysis – for their food desert papers (Walker et al. 878). Also, some researchers note that the “spatial analysis of consumer behavior” can play an important role in reevaluating and strengthening local food production and distribution networks (Gatrell et al. 1196). Therefore, the use of cartography and GIS data in food desert research can provide interesting and new insights about how government officials and residents can properly address food access issues.

Conclusion
          Regardless of extensive rural and urban food desert research, more researchers ideally should study more rural communities and relatively high-populated cities because not much research has been done for certain areas. Despite Indianapolis being ranked by Walk Score as the worst American city for convenient food access (Whittmeyer 2014), researchers have not conducted many studies about the city’s food deserts. Searching through Google Scholars and and a database reveals no such research for Indianapolis. However, the study of food deserts in urban and rural areas is relatively new – opportunities abound for case studies of “new” areas. The current research has proposed a variety of factors explaining why some areas are so-called food deserts: lack of transportation (sometimes unaffordable), inconsistent food supply from hunting and gardening, inconvenient location of stores, racial-ethnic and socioeconomic demographics (especially pertaining to low-income and African-American residents), high urban supermarket prices, many drive-through restaurants, and few or no local stores accepting the use of EBT cards. Researchers such as Gallagher (2006), Goldsberry and Howard (2011), and McEntee and Agyeman (2010) have already understood the beneficial, visual insights that mapping and GIS data usage can bring to the study of food access in the United States. I propose that more researchers should follow in their footsteps to study other food desert areas.

Works Cited

— Economic Research Service (ERS). “Food Access Research Atlas.” U.S. Department of Agriculture. Web. ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas.aspx.

— Gallagher, Mari. “Examining the impact of food deserts on public health in Chicago.” Mari Gallagher Research and Consulting Group (2006): 4-39. Web. marigallagher.com/projects/4.

— Gatrell, Jay D., Neil Reid, and Paula Ross. “Local Food Systems, Deserts, and maps: The Spatial Dynamics and Policy Implications of Food Geography.” Applied Geography 31.4 (2011): 1195-6. Web.

— Goldsberry, Kirk and Phil Howard. “Mapping urban food deserts.” ScienceDaily (3 March 2011). sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110303141557.htm.

— Gordon, Cynthia, et al. “Measuring Food Deserts in New York City's Low-Income Neighborhoods.” Health and Place 17.2 (2011): 696-700. Web.

— Lucan, Sean C., Alison Gustafson, and Stephanie B. Jilcott Pitts. “The Concept of ‘Rural Food Deserts’ is Still Meaningful.” Childhood Obesity 8.5 (2012): 484-5. Web.

— McEntee, Jesse, and Julian Agyeman. “Towards the Development of a GIS Method for Identifying Rural Food Deserts: Geographic Access in Vermont, USA.” Applied Geography 30.1 (2010): 165-76. Web.

— Mundorf, Adrienne R., Amelia Willits-Smith, and Donald Rose. “10 Years Later: Changes in Food Access Disparities in New Orleans since Hurricane Katrina.” Journal of Urban Health 92.4 (2015): 605-10. Web.

— Parsons, Sarah. “An Evaluation of the Food Desert Definition in Durham, North Carolina.” Diss. Duke University, 2012. Duke University Libraries, 25 Apr. 2012. Web.

— Smith, Chery, and Lois W. Morton. “Rural Food Deserts: Low-Income Perspectives on Food Access in Minnesota and Iowa.” Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior 41.3 (2009): 176-87. Web.

— Thomson, Susan C. “Food Deserts: Where Poor Nutrition Thrives.” Health Progress 92.6 (2011): 8-9. Web.

— Walker, Renee E., Christopher R. Keane, and Jessica G. Burke. “Disparities and Access to Healthy Food in the United States: A Review of Food Deserts Literature.” Health and Place 16.5 (2010): 876-84. Web.

— Wittmeyer, Sarah. “Indianapolis Ranks Worst in the Nation for Food Deserts.” Indiana Public Media. 30 May 2014. Web. https://indianapublicmedia.org/news/indianapolis-ranks-worst-nation-food-deserts-67800.php.